LANGUAGE IN INDIA

Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow

Volume 2 : 6 September 2002

Editor: M. S. Thirumalai, Ph.D.
Associate Editors: B. Mallikarjun, Ph.D.
Sam Mohanlal, Ph.D.
B. A. Sharada, Ph.D.

Ph.D. Dissertation

A Contrastive Analysis of Hindi and Malayalam

V. Geethakumary, Ph.D.

CHAPTER III

MORPHOLOGY

CHAPTER III

MORPHOLOGY

Noun
Nouns are those units which take case markers. In both Malayalam and Hindi nouns are declinables which distinguish the categories of Gender, Number and Case.

3.1.1. Gender¹

3.1.1.1. Malayalam

The gender distinction of Dravidian language is more rational. Generally masculine and feminine distinctions are observed only for rational beings. But in stylistic usage gender distinction can be made even in the case of irrational beings. That is to refer a cow; the speaker has the freedom to use 'she' or 'it'. To a large extent Malayalam gender is a semantic-cum-grammatical category. There are three genders in Malayalam: masculine, feminine and neuter.

Formation of female-denoting nouns from male-denoting nouns in Malayalam

1.A male denoting noun ending in -an changes the final -an to -i to form the female denoter.

-an > -i

(2) -an or -a:n ending forms denoting castes or social classes replace it with -atti or -a:tti -an or -a:n > a:tti or -a:tti

(3) - an > -cci

(4) In some of the Sanskrit loan words,
-ma:n > -mati

(5) Sanskrit loan words for their Malayalam neuter forms ending in -m,
-va:n > -vati

(6) Feminine marker -aL replaces -an in agentive nouns and nouns derived from an adjectives and in third person demonstrative pronouns.
-an > -aL

(7) Several nouns have entirely different forms in masculine and feminine genders [2].

(8) By adding morphemes or words which show gender to certain nouns which do not
express the masculine or feminine gender.

Common gender
There are certain nouns which belong to the common gender, because they do not indicate any gender distinction. For common gender singular there is no suffix and for plural suffix employed is -aR.

Loan words
The gender distinction of Malayalam words borrowed from Sanskrit will create problems. Some of these loan words take Malayalam suffixes.

2. It is also possible to consider that such nouns grammatically are devoid of masculine-feminine distinction.
But there are some loan words which follow the Sanskrit grammar even though the masculine suffixes of Malayalam are accepted in most cases.

3.1.1.2 Hindi
In Hindi gender is a grammatical category except for animate nouns, where it is agreeing with semantic gender. Hindi nouns belong to two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine, which are not strictly decided by meaning. In Hindi names of males are masculine and of females are feminine. But names of inanimate objects and collective nouns are also either masculine or feminine. That is, there is no neuter gender in Hindi.

Animate nouns

Collective nouns

Inanimate nouns:

Formation of Female-denoting Nouns from Male-denoting nouns in Hindi.

(1) By changing the endings of the male-denoting nouns.

a) -a: > i:

b) -a: or -va: > -iya:

c) Noun ending in inherent -a > -i:

d) -i: (nouns showing castes, communities or professionals) > - in

e) Generally when penultimate vowel is strong
-(a) or -a: or -u: > -in

f) (-a) or -I:> o+ -a:ni:

g) -i: or (a) > -ni:

Though already cited under the general changes found for the formation of feminine nouns from masculine nouns in Hindi, the changes met with by the Sanskrit nouns are enlisted below:

(II) Sanskrit male denoting nouns also form corresponding female denoting forms by changing the ending.

a) (-a) > -a:

b) -ak(a) -ika:

c) -ma:n -mati:

d) -va:n -vati:

e) -ta: > -tri:

(III) Formation of gender by adding morphemes or words.

(IV) Several nouns have entirely different forms in masculine and feminine gender.

3.1.1.3. Similarities and dissimilarities
Gender in Malayalam is a grammatical cum semantic category, whereas in Hindi it is purely a grammatical category except for animate nouns. In Malayalam there are three genders. Masculine and feminine gender, which include all the animate nouns, and neuter gender which includes all the inanimate things. In Hindi there are only two genders masculine and feminine which include all animate and inanimate nouns.
Unlike Hindi in Malayalam gender and number co-exist. That is, av-an 'he' -an is masculine and also singular. Similarly, -aL in av-aL 'she' indicates both feminine gender and singularity. In Hindi lark-a: 'boy' -a: may be masculine but masculine plural is lark-e 'boys'.
In the formation of genders there is not much similarity between the two languages. However, since both the languages contain loan words from Sanskrit similarity can be traced in such borrowed nouns.

Similar nouns.

In both languages loan words from Sanskrit show similarity in the gender formation. They are treated as similar nouns.

Formation of female denoting nouns from the male denoting nouns of Sanskrit loanwords.
a) -ma:n > -mati

b) -va:n > -vati:

Partially similar nouns

Partially similar noun means a loan word in which feminine gender is same in both the languages, but masculine gender is different; in Malayalam some of the Sanskrit loan words took Malayalam masculine gender marker itself, and some of them changed their form very little.
e.g.
abhine:ta > abdhine:ta:v> 'actor'
da:ta: > da:ta:v> 'donor'

Some other nouns take the masculine markers -an.
e.g.
priyatam > priyataman 'husband'
se:vak > se:vakan 'servant'
ba:lak > ba:lakan 'boy'
adhya:pak > adhya:pakan 'teacher'

The feminine gender for these nouns is same in both Malayalam and Hindi.

e.g.

3.1.2. Number

3.1.2.1. Malayalam

In Malayalam there are two numbers, singular and plural. The noun theme itself is ordinarily singular. With the addition of certain suffixes plural forms indicating two or more are obtained.

Plural morpheme in Malayalam

The plural suffixes in Malayalam are -kaL, -ma:R and -aR

The distribution of these suffixes are as follows:

I. -kaL occurs with

a) Non-human nouns ending in -a and -u
e.g.

b) Nouns ending in -i, -l, -am and ->
e.g.

The following morpho-phonemic changes occur when -kaL occurs as plural morpheme.

(1) when -kaL occurs after -u ending nouns the -k is geminated.

e.g.
pasu + kal -> pasukkaL 'cows'
jantu + kaL -> jantukkaL 'animals'
pulu + kaL -> pulukkaL 'worms'

(2) When -kaL occurs after -am ending stems -am changes to -nn.
e.g.
pa:Tam + kaL -> pa:TannaL 'fields'
karam + kaL -> karannaL 'hands'
maram + kaL -> marannal 'trees'

(3) When -kaL occurs after - ending human disyllabic nouns -kaL >-nnaL and -> > -u
e.g.
peNN> + kaL -> peNNunnaL 'ladies'

kuññ> + kaL -> kuññunnaL 'children'

(4) When -kaL occurs after -> ending non-human nouns and -l ending nouns -> > -u
and then take -kaL marker.
e.g.
kaNN> + kaL -> kaNNukaL 'eyes'
ka:T> + kaL -> ka:TukaL 'forests'
kaTal + kaL -> kaTalukaL 'seas'

II. -ma:R occurs after -a ending, -u ending, -i ending, >- ending and -n ending human nouns. -ma:R may occur in free variation with -kaL in a few cases.
e.g.

The following morphophonemic changes occur when -ma:R occurs as plural
marker.

(a) -u ending nouns -kk- will come as link morph and -ma:r > -anma:r
e.g.
guru + ma:r -> gurukkanma:r 'teachers'
prabhu + ma:r -> prabhukkanma:r 'landlords'

(b) In -> ending forms after dropping the last syllable -kk- will come as link morph
and -ma:r > -anma:r.
e.g.
ra:ja:v> + ma:r -> ra:ja:kkanma:r 'kings'
pita:v> + ma:r -> pita:kkanma:r 'fathers'


III. -aR occurs as plural suffix for common gender human nouns.
e.g.
manusy -aR 'human beings'

The plural marker is optional with the nouns of non-personal type when they are
preceded by a numeral adjective.

e.g.
pattu pustakam ~ 'ten books'
pattu pustakannaL

Epicene Plural in Malayalam

The plural forms indicating plurality without reference to gender are marked with the plural marker -aR in Malayalam. These plural forms are epicene in character, including both masculine and feminine forms.
e.g.

Double Plural in Malayalam

In Malayalam the plural marker -kaL occurs after first person (pl) exclusive will express double plurality.
e.g. ña + n + kaL > ñannaL 'we (excl.) '

Singular personal markers are found in first, second and reflexive pronouns.
e.g. -n occurs after ña: +n > ña:n ' I '
Ø occurs after ni:+ Ø > ni: 'you'
ta: +n > ta:n 'self'

Honorific Singular in Malayalam

-kaL and -aR are suffixes of honorific singular in Malayalam. Plural marker is used to show respect even though the noun is singular.
e.g.
ninnaL 'you' (both singular and plural)
avarkaL 'referring to one person'
bhaTTar 'referring to a Brahmin'

There are nouns which do not take plural marker even when the idea is plural.
e.g.
co: R> 'cooked rice'
veLLam 'water'
ari 'rice'

3.1.2.1. Hindi

Hindi also distinguishes two numbers, singular and plural. Singular is not generally shown by any overt marker and plural is marked by suffix.

Plural morpheme in Hindi

In Hindi masculine and feminine nouns will take different plural markers.

The plural morpheme in Hindi is:

For masculine nouns -e
-e occurs with masculine nouns ending in -a:, when it is not followed by a case marker, it replaces the final -a:
e.g.

O occurs with masculine nouns ending in -a: which are of Sanskrit origin and which changed the final sound as -a: in Hindi and also some native Hindi nouns which end in -a:. O occurs with all other masculine nouns irrespective of endings.

Sanskrit loan words

Native Hindi words

other masculine words, which take O as plural marker.

II. For feminine nouns

/- e~ a a ~ a ~ /

/ -e / occurs with feminine nouns ending in - (a) , -a:, -u, or , -u: and not followed by case markers.

e.g.

/-a:/ occurs with feminine nouns ending in -i and -i: and not followed by case markers.

e.g.

/ ~ / occurs with feminine nouns ending in -ya: when not followed by case markers.

e.g.

The following morphophonemic changes occur when

1. / - e / occurs as plural marker

(a) nouns ending in (a) replaces the (a) and take the plural marker e~.
e.g.
aurat(a) 'woman' > aurate~: 'women'

(b) nouns ending in -a: when take -e plural marker -y glide will come before the
marker.
e.g.
a:sa: + e > a:sa:ye~: 'hopes'

(c) nouns ending in -u or -u: , v glide will come
e.g. rtu + e > rtuve~: 'seasons'

(2) / -ã / occurs as plural morpheme

(a) -i: ending nouns will take the plural marker with y glide after shortening the final
vowel.
e.g. na:ri: + ã: > na:riyã : 'women'

(b) -i ending nouns will take - ã: with a y glide.
e.g. ni: ti + a > ni:tiy ã: 'policies'

Epicene Plural in Hindi

In Hindi there are some masculine nouns whose plural may have semantically an epicene nature. The plurals of the nouns vidya:rthi 'student', kavi 'poet', a:dmi: 'm,an' etc. show epicene nature and include females of the group also. But in Hindi verbs and adjectives, which are in concord with nouns, will come along with these nouns and in this context behave only as masculine plural nouns.

3.1.2.2. Similarities and dissimilarities

Both Malayalam and Hindi distinguish two numbers, Singular and Plural. In both languages singular is not shown by any overt marker.e.g.

Singular

In both languages plurals are commonly formed by the addition of certain suffixes. Exception is found in Hindi when the marker is f in the case of few nouns.

e.g.

Plural

Epicene plural forms are found in Malayalam. But in Hindi epicene plurals are not so common.

Honorific singular found in Malayalam is absent in Hindi.

Unlike Hindi in Malayalam personal pronouns take singular and plural markers. Singular marker -n and O are found in first person, second person and reflexive pronouns. -kaL occurs after first person plural exclusive pronoun will express double plurality.

3.1.3. Case

3.1.3.1. Malayalam

The case indicates the relation which a noun or pronoun has with neighboring words. In Malayalam, cases are added to the nouns or pronouns as suffixes. The eight cases in Malayalam with their markers and example are given below:

In Malayalam there is no ablative case marker separately. But the purpose is served by using an extra word 'ninnu' after the locative suffix -il or -kal.

e.g. marattil ninn> 'from the tree'
paTikkal ninn> 'from the step'

1. Nominative Case
In Malayalam the nominative case of the noun is unmarked. The noun in the nominative appears as subject.

e.g. makaL elutt> eluti
'daughter wrote letter'

2. Accusative case
Accusative case marker is -e Malayalam. The object in the sentence usually takes accusative case marker. For neuter gender this case marker is optional. The addition of the suffix -e makes the noun or pronoun an object.

e.g. ra:man krusNane viLiccu
'Rama called Krishna'

avaL kuTTiye eTuttu
'she took the child'

avan maram veTTi
'he cut the tree'
(neuter gender - maram O)

3. Sociative case

The case marker is o:Tu. This suffix usually comes in connection with speaking, informing, asking or with comparison. Here the indirect object becoming an agency an agency for social intercourse.

e.g. avaL ammayo:Tu co:diccu
'She asked mother'

avan daivatto:tu pra:rtthiccu
'She prayed to God'

ra:mane krusNa no:Tu ta:ratamyappeTutta:m
'Rama can be compared with Krishna'.

4.Instrumental case

-a:l is the case marker. 'koNTu' a verbal participle form of the verb stem koL-occurs as a post position giving the same meaning. This case marker is used to show instruments with which action is done or parts of the body which are used in doing the action.

e.g. adhya:pakan vaTiya:l aTiccu
'Teacher beat with stick'

nammaL kaNNa:l ka:Nunnu
'we see with the eyes'

koNTu can occur in free variation with -a:1.

e.g. vaTikoNTu ~ vaTiya:1
kaNNu koNTu ~ kaNNa:l

In Malayalam -a:1 can be used to show the components with which things are made.

e.g. taTiya:1 ceyta peTTi
'The box made of wood'

In certain contexts it can be replaced with locative case marker -il also

e.g. taTiyil ceyta peTTi
'The box made of wood'.

In passive voice, the doer of the action and in causative sentence, the medial agent takes the instrumental marker.

e.g. ra:mana:l oru elutt> elutappeTTu
'a letter was written by Rama'

ña:n avaLekkoNTu ii jo:li ceyyippiccu
' I made her to do this work'

5. Dative case
The dative case markers are -kku, -u, inu. Indirect object takes dative case marker.

e.g. amma kuTTiykku pa:1 koTuttu
'mother gave milk to the child'

ña:n ru:pa acchanu koTuttu
' I gave the money to father'

Some times to show the purpose, the post position 've:NTi' is added with the dative case marker.

e.g. ña: n avaLkku ve:NTi oru sa:ri va:nni
'I bought a Saree for her'

6. Genitive case
The Genitive case markers in Malayalam are -uTe and -Re. This markers show possession of something.

e.g. si:tayuTe vi:T> 'Sita's house'
acchanRe pe:na 'Fathers pen'

7. Locative case

The case marker are -il and -kaL. The postposition 'me:l' also gives the sense of location. Another post position 'pakkal' to be used to indicate a type of location meaning 'at the custody of'. It occurs only after genitive case

e.g. avnaRe pakkal 'at his custody'

8. Vocative case

For vocative case the final vowel of a vowel ending sound will lengthen.
v > v:
consonant ending will drop the final consonant.

e.g. acchan > accha: 'Father' (voc.)
de:van > de:va: 'O God'

Declensional characteristics of Malayalam nouns

When case markers are added to nouns morphophonemic changes occur to the noun stems according to the ending of the nouns. The changes are as follows:

1. Nouns ending in -i and -a.

-i or -a + case marker > -i or -a + y + case marker

e.g. amma + e > ammaye (object)
vali + e > valiye 'through the path'
kaTa + il > kaTayil 'in the shop'
ceTi + kku > ceTiykku 'to the plant'

2. Nouns ending in -u
-u + case marker > -u + vin + case marker

e.g. bandhu + e > bandhuvine (object)
guru + o:Tu > guruvino:Tu 'to teacher'
pasu + Re > pasuvinRe 'cow's'

3. Nouns ending in ->
-> + case marker > O ± in + case marker

e.g. ra:ja:v> + nu > ra:ja:vinu 'to kind'
pu:v> + il > pu:vil 'in the flower'

* exception for the nouns which have - T- in the last syllable for locative case markers only.
ka:T + il > ka:TTil 'in the forest'

4. Nouns ending in -n and -l will take case markers without any changes.

e.g. avan + e > avane (object)
makan + il > makanil 'in son'
makaL + uTe > makaLuTe 'daughters'

5. Nouns ending in -am

-am + case marker > -tt ± in + case marker

e.g. maram + e > maratte (object)
maram + il > marattinRe 'in the tree'

4. Nouns ending in -l and -r.

-l or -r + case marker > -l or -r ± -in- + case marker

e.g. kaTal + Re > kaTalinRe 'of the sea'
kaTal + il > kaTalil 'in the sea'
kayaR + Re > kayaRinRe 'of the rope'

3.1.3.2. Hindi

The cases in Hindi indicate the relation of a noun or pronoun with the neighboring word. In Hindi case markers are added separately and nouns will modify accordingly. There are eight cases in Hindi, which are given below with their markers and examples.

1. Nominative case

The nominative case marker in Hindi is 'ne'. The subject of transitive verb takes this case marker hen the verb is in a tense form, formed from the past participle base (i.e., past indefinite, past perfect, past doubtful, etc.). The subject of intransitive verb never takes any marker.

Transitive verb - past
e.g. mæ ne yah tasvi:r dekhi: hæ
'I have seen this picture'

Transitive verb : non past
e.g. billi: du:dh pi: rahi: hæ
'The cat is drinking milk'

Intransitive verb
e.g. mæ kal dill : ja:u:ga:
'I will go to Delhi tomorrow'
v>h yahã : kab a:ya: ?
'When did he come here? '

In Hindi, when the noun takes the nominative maker -ne, theverb is in concord with the object in gender and number.

2. Accusative case

The accusative case marker in Hindi is 'ko' or 'O'. For nonpersonal or irrational objects this case marker is optional. With the case marker it refers to a particular thing or things.

e.g. ek pustakf la:o:
'bring a book'
pustak ko vahã: mat rakho:
'Do not keep the book there'

In Hindi when the noun takes nominative case marker 'ne' and the object takes accusative case marker 'ko', then verb will be in the masculine singular gender without concord with either the subject or object.

3. Instrumental case

The instrumental case marker in Hindi is 'se'. It shows the instruments with which action is done or parts of body which are used in doing the action.

e.g. mæ kalam se likhti : hu:
'I am writing with pen'
ham ka:no: se sunte hæ :
'We are hearing with ears'

In passive voice the doer of the action and in causative sentence the medial agent also takes the instrumental case marker 'se'.

e.g. sunita: se ek gi:t ga:ya: gaya:
'A song was sung by Sunita'
mæ ne y>h ka:m n>:kar se kara:ya
'I had this word done by the servant'

In Hindi the post position 'dva:ra: ' or 'zariye' which occur after 'ke' also give the meaning 'by the way of'. These can be substituted for 'se'.

e.g. yah ciTThi: hava:i: jaha:z ke dva:ra: a:yi: hæ
or
yah citthi: hava:i jaha:z ke zariye a:yi: hæ
' This letter has come by aeroplane'

In Hindi for showing accompaniment of abstract feelings or nonabstract things or persons 'se' is used with names of abstract feelings only. -ke sa:th, 'same:t' and 'sahit' are used with all nouns without semantic restrictions.

e.g. vah khusi: ke sa:th a:yega:
'He will come with pleasure'
savita pati samet a:yi
'Savita came with her husband'

4. Dative case

In Hindi indirect objects take the marker 'ko' when a sentence has direct and indirect objects, generally direct object takes f marker and indirect takes 'ko'. But if the direct object is + human the marker 'ko' is obligatory.

e.g. mæ ne rupaya: pita:ji: ko s>: pa:
'I gave the money to father'

'liye' and 'va:ste' which occur after 'ke' are post positions in Hindi which give the meaning of purpose or intention.

e.g. mæ ne bahin ke liye ek sa:ri: khari: di:
'I bought a Saree for sister'

5. Ablative case
The ablative case marker in Hindi is 'se' it expresses spatial or temporal separation.

e.g. per se patte: gire:
'Leaves fell from the tree'

For showing comparison also 'se' is used.

e.g. saca:i: se bar kar kuch nahi : hæ
'Bigger than truth nothing is there'

5. Genitive case

The genitive case markers in Hindi are ka:, ke, ki: which are morphologically conditioned, where distribution depends upon the gender and number of the noun possessed and whether the noun is followed by case marker or not.

Their distribution is as follows;

(1) 'ka:' precedes a noun which is masculine singular and not followed by case marker.
e.g. nadiyo: ka: pa: ni: 'The water of the rivers'
larkiyo: ka: khe: l 'The play of girl's'

(2) 'ke' precedes a masculine plural noun, whether it is followed by case marker or not, masculine singular nouns followed by case marker, and before any noun when it is being possessed by a possessor and is expressed by a possessive verb, hæ, hæ , tha:, thi:, etc. and 'ke' precedes most of the relational words.

e.g. larke ke ha:th 'the boy's hands'
larko: ke khel:lo: ka: 'of the plays of the boys'
savita: ke ghar se 'from the house of savita'
mi:ra: ke ek bahan hæ: 'meera has a sister'
sku:l ke sa:mne 'in front of the school'
kamre ke andar 'inside the room'

(3) 'ki: ' precedes all feminine nouns and a few relational words.

e.g. ra:m ki: bahan 'Ram's sister'
bha:rat ki: nadiyã: 'Rivers of India'
larki: ki: ã:kho: me 'in the eyes of the girl'
ghar ki: o:r 'towards the house'
larke ki: tarah 'like the boy'

6. Locative case
The case markers in Hindi are me, par. In Hindi 'me' means 'in' or 'inside' and 'par' means 'on' or 'at'.
e.g. nadi: me pa:ni: nahi: hæ :
'There is no water in the river'
mez par kalam hæ :
'There is pen on the table'

7. Vocative case
In Hindi the masculine singular nouns ending in -a: will change to -e and the plural nouns ending in -e will change to -o, when they take vocative case marker.
e.g. larka : > larke 'o boy'
larke (pl.) > lorko 'o boys'

Declensional characteristics of Hindi nouns

In Hindi plural form of all the nouns irrespective of gender, will change similarly when case markers are added to them. All of them will take the marker o: finally.

noun (pl.) -L + case marker > -o: + case marker
(-L is the final sound of the plural noun.)

e.g. larke: + ko > larko ko 'to the boys'
ri:tiya: + me > ritiyo me: 'in the methods'
kita:be: + se > kita:bo se 'from the books'
vadhuve: + par > vadhuvo par 'on brides'

The singular nouns of Hindi when they take case marker show changes as follows:

(1) Masculine nouns ending in -a:, which will change the final sound to -e while taking plural markers.
-a: + case marker > -e + case marker
e.g. larka : + ko > larke ko 'to the boy'

(2) All other masculine and feminine singular nouns take case marker without any change.

e.g. ra:ja: + se > ra:ja: se 'from the king'
kavi: + ka: > kavi: ka: 'poets'
devi: + ne > devi: ne 'goddess' (sub)
vadhu: + par > vadhu: par 'upon bride'

3.1.3.3. Similarities and dissimilarities

While comparing Malayalam and Hindi cases it is found that similarity is very less between the two languages. The case markers of the two languages show semantic equivalence with some postpositions. To compare the two languages it is better to consider each case separately as follows:

(1) Nominative case
In Malayalam there is no case marker for this case while in Hindi it is marked by 'ne'. But in both languages nominative form is used as the subject.

e.g. M. li:la oru palam tinnu
H. li:la ne ek ph>l kha:ya:
'Leela ate a fruit'

M. amma kuTTiye viLiccu
H. mã:ne bacche ko bula:ya:
'mother called the child'

(2) Accusative case

The accusative case markers in Malayalam are -e or f and in Hindi ko, f. In both languages this case marker is added to nominal or pronominal direct objects. In both languages nonpersonal or irrational objects may or may not take accusative marker.

e.g. M. acchan makane viLiccu
H. pita: ne beTe ko bula:ya:
'Father called the son'
M. ña:n oru pustakam va:nni
H. mæ ne ek pustak khari:di:
'I purchased a book'
M. pustakatte aviTe vaykkarut>
H. pustak ko vahã : mat rakho
'Don't keep the book there'

(3) Instrumental case

The case marker in Malayalam is '-a:l' and in Hindi 'se' In Malayalam the postposition 'koNTu' occurs in free variation with -a:l.

e.g. M. avan pe:naya:l elutunnu
avan pe:nakoNT> elutunnu
H. vah kalam se likhta: hæ:
'He is writing with pen'

In both languages the doer of action in a sentence in the passive voice, and the medial agent in a causative sentence take the instrumental marker.

e.g. M. ña:n a: jo:li ve:lakkaranekkoNTu ceyyiccu
H. mæ ne vah ka:m n>:kar se kara:ya:
'I made the servant to do the work'
M. ra:mana:l oru elutt elutappeTTu
H. ram se ek ciTThi : likha: gaya: 'A letter was written by Rama'

In Hindi for getting mediative meaning the post positions 'dva:ra: ' or 'zariye' is used after 'ke'. In Malayalam the post position 'vali' is the semantic equivalent.

e.g. M I: elutt> vima:nam vali vannu
H ya ciTThi: hava:i: jaha:z ke dva:ra: a:yi: hæ :
'The letter has come by aeroplane'

In Malayalam -ilu:Te is used as the semantic equivalent for Hindi 'se' where it will give the meaning 'through', 'along'.

e.g. M. kuTTi janalilu:Te no:kki
kuTTi janalvali no:kki
H. bachi: khirki: se dekhti: hæ :
'The child is looking through the window'

The post positions 'sahitam' and 'same:tam' in Malayalam and 'sahit' and 'samet' in Hindi are same. They are generally used with Sanskrit tatsama words only.

e.g. M. avaL santo:satto:Te varum
avaL santo:satto:Tu ku:Ti varum
H. vah khusi: se a:yegi:
vah khusi: ke sa:th a:yegi:
'She will come with pleasure'
M. ra:man patni: same:tam vannu
H. ra:m patni: samet/ke sa:th a:ya:
'Ram came with his wife'

4) Dative case

Dative case markers in Malayalam are -kku, -u, inu and in Hindi 'ko'. In both languages when the sentence has direct and indirect objects, indirect object takes the dative case marker.

e.g. M ña:n ru:pa acchanu koTuttu
H. mæ :ne rupaya: pita:ji: ko diya:
'I gave the money to father'
If the direct object is + human the dative marker is obligatory.

To show the purpose or intention the post position 've:NTi' or 'a:yi' is used in Malayalam after the dative case marker and in Hindi 'liye' or 'va:ste' after 'ke'.
e.g. M. ña:n enRe makaLkku ve:NTi oru sa:ri va:nni
na:n enRe makaLkka:yi oru sa:ri va:nni

H. mæ : ne apani: beti: ke liye ek sa:ri: khari:di:
' I bought a Saree for my daughter'

(5) Genitive case

For expressing possession the marker used in Malayalam is -uTe, -Re and in Hindi ka, ke, ki:. In Hindi these markers are morphologically conditioned, which depends on the number and gender of the noun possessed and upon whether the noun is followed by case marker or not. But Malayalam markers depend upon the noun endings only.

e.g. M. lalitayuTe vi:T>
H. lalita: ka: ghar
'Lalita's house'
M. lalitayuTe vi:TTil ninn>
H. lalita: ke ghar se
'from Lalitha's house'
M. pasuvinRe va:l
H. ga:y ki: puch
'Cow's tail'

(6) Locative case
Locative case marker in Malayalam is -il, -kal and in Hindi 'me' and 'par'. In Malayalam, generally the -il, has the sense 'in', 'inside' and -kal has the sense of 'at'. In Hindi 'par' means 'on' or 'at'. The post position 'me:l' in Malayalam means 'on' or 'above'. 'uLLil' (n.st ul - + loc.suf. -il.) means 'inside in Malayalam and '-ke andar' is the semantic equivalent in Hindi.

e.g. M. kiNaRRil veLLam illa
H. kue me pa:ni: nahi: hæ :
'There is no water in the well'
M. me:sa me:l / me:sayuTe mukaLil
H mej par 'upon the table'
M. me: sayuTe uLLil
H. mej ke andar
'inside the table'

(7) Vocative case marker

In both languages by lengthening the final sound, mostly vowels, vocative case is obtained.

e.g. Malayalam Hindi
amma > amma: 'mother' larka: > larke
acchan > accha: 'father'

The sociative case is found only in Malayalam. The case is marked with 'o:Tu' whereas in Hindi ablative case form 'se' doing the function of sociative also.

e.g. M. adhya:pakano:Tu co:dikku
H. adya:pak se pu:cho
'ask the teacher'

The ablative case which is found in Hindi is absent in Malayalam. The ablative case marker 'se' of Hindi is semantically equivalent to '-il ninnu' which is obtained in Malayalam by adding the post position 'ninnu' after the locative form of the noun.

e.g. M. marattilninnu vi:Nu
H. per se gira:
'Fell down from the tree'

In Malayalam the plural nouns also take case markers just like singular nouns. The case suffixes are added directly after plural marker. But in Hindi the plural form changes while taking case marker. All Hindi plural nouns, irrespective of gender, when take case marker will change their final sound to - o.

e.g. M. pustakannaL + il > pustakannaLil
H. kita:be + me > kita:bo me 'in the books
M. a:NkuTTikal + kku > a:nkuTTikaLkk> 'to the boys'
H. larke + ko > larko ko

In Malayalam for each case separate case markers are there. But in Hindi same form of case markers are used for more than one case. For example 'ko' is used for accusative as well as dative cases. 'se' is there for instrumental and ablative. This will create ambiguity also.

e.g. H. mæ ne cor ko puli:s ko dikha:ya:
and
mæ :ne pulis ko cor ko dikha:ya:

In these two sentences both can mean 'I showed the thief to the police'.
But in Malayalam because of the separate forms of case markers this sort of ambiguity is minimized.
e.g. M. na:n kaLLane po:li:sinu ka:TTikoTuttu
'I showed the thief to the police'.

3.1.4. Derived nouns

Derived nouns are nouns derived from verbs or adjectives.

3.1.4.1. Malayalam

Examples for nouns derived from verbs,
o:TTam 'running' from o:T- 'to run'
ca:TTam 'jumping' from ca:T- 'to jump'

Examples for nouns derived from adjectives,
e.g. nanma 'goodness' from nalla 'good'

The nominalization markers of Malayalam are,
-am, -ma, O, - ca, -vi
e.g. o:TTam 'running'
nanma 'goodness'
aTi f 'beating'
vi:lca 'falling'
ke:Lvi 'hearing'

3.1.4.2. Hindi

Examples for nouns derived from verbs,
kama:i: 'earning' from kama:na: 'to earn'
parha:i: 'study' from parhna: 'to study'

Examples for nouns derived from adjectives,
bura:i: 'badness' from bura: 'bad'
saca:i 'truthfulness' from sacc: 'true'

The nominalizations marker in Hindi is -i:
e.g. kama:i: 'earning'
saca:i: 'truthfulness'

3.1.4.3. Similarities and dissimilarities
th Malayalam and Hindi there are derived nouns, which are nouns derived from verbs or adjectives.
e.g.

In Hindi the infinitive form of the verb also functions as verbal noun, which is absent in Malayalam.

e.g.
ba:r ba:r ka:fi: pi:na: accha: nahi : hæ :
'Drinking coffee often isnot good'
here pi:na: ' is used as a verbal noun.
kal mujhe bambai: ja:na: hæ :
'I have to go to Bombay tomorrow'.

3.2. Pronouns
Pronouns are those words that are used instead of nouns.

3.2.1. Personal pronouns

3.2.1.1 Malayalam

Personal pronouns in Malayalam are

Reflexive pronoun

ta:n 'self' (Sg) tannaL 'self'(Pl)

III. person

Remote

Proximate

Declensional characteristics of pronouns

In Malayalam the third personal pronouns are used as demonstrative pronouns also.
e.g. itu enRe pustakam a:N> .
'This is my book'