LANGUAGE IN INDIA

Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow

Volume 25:8 August 2025
ISSN 1930-2940

Editors:
         Selvi M. Bunce, M.A., Ph.D. Candidate
         Nathan Mulder Bunce, M.A., Ph.D. Candidate
         Sam Mohanlal, Ph.D.
         B. Mallikarjun, Ph.D.
         A. R. Fatihi, Ph.D.
         G. Baskaran, Ph.D.
         T. Deivasigamani, Ph.D.
         Pammi Pavan Kumar, Ph.D.
         Soibam Rebika Devi, M.Sc., Ph.D.

Honorary Managing Editor & Publisher: M. S. Thirumalai, Ph.D.

Celebrate India!
Unity in Diversity!!

HOME PAGE

Click Here for Back Issues of Language in India - From 2001

Poetic Encounter
Available in https://www.amazon.in/dp/B09TT86S4T

Poems
Naked: the honest browsings of two brown women
Available in https://www.amazon.in

Decrees
Available in https://www.amazon.com

BOOKS FOR YOU TO READ AND DOWNLOAD FREE!

REFERENCE MATERIALS

BACK ISSUES

  • E-mail your articles and book-length reports in Microsoft Word to languageinindiaUSA@gmail.com.

  • PLEASE READ THE GUIDELINES GIVEN IN HOME PAGE IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE LIST OF CONTENTS.

  • Your articles and book-length reports should be written following the APA, MLA, LSA, or IJDL Stylesheet.

  • The Editorial Board has the right to accept, reject, or suggest modifications to the articles submitted for publication, and to make suitable stylistic adjustments. High quality, academic integrity, ethics and morals are expected from the authors and discussants.

Copyright © 2025
M. S. Thirumalai

Publisher: M. S. Thirumalai, Ph.D.
11249 Oregon Circle
Bloomington, MN 55438
USA
Custom Search

Orthography for Foundational Literacy in Manipur's Tribal Languages: Issues and Challenges

Wichamdinbo Mataina

Abstract

This paper examines the complex and evolving efforts toward orthographic development for tribal languages in Manipur's hill districts, where foundational literacy remains a critical concern. The majority of these languages are oral and belong to the Tibeto-Burman family, lacking standardized writing systems until the advent of Christian missionaries in the early 20th century. Drawing from textual analysis of 18 tribal languages, textbooks, community interactions, and a survey of 251 respondents across eight hill districts in Manipur, the study investigates current orthographic practices and community attitudes toward language standardization. It identifies key issues such as the lack of consensus on grapheme inventory, tone marking, spelling conventions, and word division. The paper also addresses the sociopolitical sensitivities tied to script choice and the implications of adopting either new or existing scripts. Practical steps toward developing a sustainable and community-approved orthography are proposed, including the importance of community consultation, grapheme selection, tone representation, and testing. The paper argues that while script invention may offer cultural symbolism, the adoption and careful adaptation of the Roman script present a more feasible path for most tribal communities. Ultimately, the study underscores the urgent need for linguistically informed, socially inclusive, and technically supported orthography development to strengthen foundational literacy and preserve indigenous languages in Manipur.

Keywords:orthography, tribal languages, mother tongue education, standardization

Introduction

Orthography plays a vital role in mother tongue education, preservation, and promotion of endangered languages. It serves as the foundation for creating literature, educational materials, and digital content. For languages with no indigenous script traditions, especially many oral languages, developing or adopting an effective orthography is often the first critical step in ensuring long-term language vitality (Coulmas, 2003). This is particularly relevant in multilingual and tribal contexts, such as the hill districts of Manipur, where most indigenous languages historically lacked a writing system.

The tribal languages of Manipur, like many across Northeast India, are predominantly oral in tradition. Their transition to written forms began largely in the early 20th century, with the advent of Christian missionaries who introduced literacy to these communities through Bible translation, hymn composition, and catechism materials. The missionaries, often unfamiliar with native phonologies, developed practical writing systems based on the Roman script, sometimes borrowing orthographic conventions from neighboring languages like Bengali or even English. In some cases, Bengali or Devanagari scripts were initially used, but these were largely replaced by Roman letter due to its perceived simplicity and alignment with Christian evangelism (Nag, 2020).

At present, speakers of at least 34 tribal communities in Manipur, including the 18 state-recognized tribal languages, use writing systems primarily rooted in these early missionary efforts. This shift marked a major cultural transformation, but the orthographies were often inconsistent. Often, they were designed to serve immediate missionary purposes, religious instruction and scripture reading, rather than long-term educational or linguistic needs. As a result, inconsistencies, phonological mismatches, and ad hoc spellings became embedded in the orthographic conventions passed down through generations (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006).

This is only the beginning part of the article. PLEASE CLICK HERE TO READ THE ENTIRE ARTICLE IN PRINTER-FRIENDLY VERSION.

Wichamdinbo Mataina
Manipur University
wicham.mataina@gmail.com
Custom Search
  • Click Here to Go to Creative Writing Section

  • Send your articles
    as an attachment
    to your e-mail to
    languageinindiaUSA@gmail.com.
  • Please ensure that your name, academic degrees, institutional affiliation and institutional address, and your e-mail address are all given in the first page of your article. Also include a declaration that your article or work submitted for publication in LANGUAGE IN INDIA is an original work by you and that you have duly acknowledged the work or works of others you used in writing your articles, etc. Remember that by maintaining academic integrity we not only do the right thing but also help the growth, development and recognition of Indian/South Asian scholarship.